14 October 2022

From Plotinus’s On Difficulties about the Soul II:

“. . . and the needs of the body and the passions make us have continually different opinions.  Then there is ignorance of the [true] good, and the soul’s not knowing what to say when it is dragged in every direction, and still other results from the mixture of all these.  But is it actually our best part which has different opinions?  No, perplexity and variety of opinions belong to the gathering [of our various parts and passions]: from our best part the right account of the matter is given to the common gathering, and is weak because it is in the mixture, not by its own nature.  But it is as if in the great clamour of an assembly the best of the advisers does not prevail when he speaks, but the worse of those who clamour and shout, but he (the best) sits quietly unable to do anything, defeated by the clamour of the worse.  And in the worst kind of man there is the common gathering and his human nature is composed of everything in the manner of a bad political constitution; in the middling man it is as it is in the city in which some good can prevail as the democratic constitution is not entirely out of control; but in the better kind of man the style of life is aristocratic; his human nature is already escaping from the common gathering and giving itself over to the better sort.  But in the best man, the man who separates himself, the ruling principle is one, and the order comes from this (the One) to the rest.  It is as if there was a double city, one above and one composed of the lower elements set in order by the powers above.”

(Plotinus, Ennead IV.4.17, On Difficulties about the Soul II, translated by A. H. Armstrong, Loeb Classical Library, 1984, 179-183.  Note: The square brackets are inserts by the translator, A. H. Armstrong.  The parentheses are inserts by me.)

As I read this passage, I feel that it accurately describes my own life which has been pulled this way and that by the kinds of mechanisms that Plotinus describes.  I describe my spiritual journey as having many setbacks and that it has had a five-steps-forward, then two or three steps back, kind of rhythm.  I think this is common.  There are those who hear about the path and then follow it forward, but I think they are extremely rare.  It is more common to become distracted, step off the path, enticed by some attraction, and then if one is fortunate, one comes to one’s senses and returns to the path.  A consequence of this is that initially progress on the Platonic path is difficult to discern.  I have found that it is only when I look back over a longer period of time, say ten years, that it becomes clear how much I have learned and how much has changed.  And this helps to build a foundation for a more secure onward journey on the path.

Plotinus seems to have realized this.  I don’t know if this is based on his own experience, but it does indicate in Porphyry’s biography of Plotinus that Plotinus spent quite a few years searching for a knowledgeable teacher in Alexandria before finally finding Ammonius Saccas.  That period of searching may be what informs a passage like this which has the authenticity of experience for me.  I find that gratifying as it means that Plotinus also felt, early in his life, the attraction of ephemeral distractions.  And it also means that overcoming those distractions is possible for people like myself.

 

 

10 October 2022

Porphyry on Vegetarianism

“Abstinence from [eating or sacrificing] animate creatures, as I also said in my first book [letter], is not advised for everyone without exception, but for philosophers, and among philosophers chiefly for those who make their happiness depend on God and the imitation of God.”

(Porphyry, On Abstinence from Killing Animals, translated by Gillian Clark, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York, 2000, page 55)

When I read this, I understand traditional, classical, philosophy, and Platonism in particular, to be a tradition that was distinguished by commitments to behave in specific ways; what today we might call ethical commitments or restrictions.  Porphyry’s view is that in order to be a philosopher you have to be a vegetarian; that is to say that vegetarianism is a defining feature of what it means to be a philosopher.

Porphyry in Abstinence is writing to a friend who had been committed to the philosophical way of life, but had recently abandoned that life, signaling his departure from philosophy by resuming the consumption of animals, or meat.  It appears that Porphyry wrote four letters to his friend (we don’t have his friend’s responses, if there were any).  The above quote is from the second letter.  Earlier, in the first letter, Porphyry writes:

“First, then, you should know that my discourse will not offer advice to every human way of life: not to those who engage in banausic crafts [banausic means practical, utilitarian], nor to athletes of the body, nor to soldiers, nor sailors, nor orators, nor to those who have chosen the life of public affairs, but to the person who has thought about who he is and whence he has come and where he should try to go, and who has principles about food, and about other proper behavior, which are different from those in other ways of life.”

(Ibid, page 40)

This makes sense to me.  Athletes in training are often encouraged by their coaches to eat in a certain way.  Porphyry is making a similar point about the philosopher; that philosophers need to pay attention to things like the food they eat. 

I think the main reason Porphyry argues that the philosophical life in particular requires a commitment to a vegetarian diet is that abstinence from eating animals assists philosophers in their contemplative practice.  I mean that eating meat makes the mind sluggish and distracted, while being vegetarian makes the mind lighter and makes it so the mind finds contemplation more agreeable.

In the first quote Porphyry says refers to ‘the imitation of God’ as a reason for abstaining from killing (eating or sacrificing) animals.  This is another aspect of the philosophers’ commitment to vegetarianism.  Porphyry is saying that vegetarianism brings you closer to God by imitating God.  How does that work?  One way of looking at this is that The Good, The One, and The Beautiful are self-sufficient; that ultimate nature does not exist at the expense of other things.  Similarly, when we commit ourselves to a vegetarian diet, we significantly mimic that manner of existing; that is to say our own life is not lived at the expense of others or by causing harm to others.  While it is not possible to live such a life completely in the material world, nevertheless, every step made in that direction is of benefit, both to ourselves in this life and future lives, and also to countless other living beings.

 

 

8 October 2022

More on Grace

Yesterday I posted about grace in the Platonic tradition.  Here are a few more observations:

1. In comment 4 yesterday I think I could have been clearer.  To put it more simply, I understand The Eternal as having three aspects: the everywhen, the everywhere, and the everything. 

The everywhen refers to The Eternal as always existing, as never not existing.  This speaks to The Eternal’s relationship to time.

The everywhere refers to The Eternal as always present throughout all space.  This speaks to The Eternal’s relationship to space.

The everything refers to The Eternal as the source of awe which arises in our interaction with ordinary things when we intuit the presence of The Eternal within the ephemeral.  This experience of awe is grace.

2. Sometimes people dislike the idea of grace because it seems to run counter to our sense of fairness and/or justice.  Yesterday I used the metaphor of moonlight falling on a mountain path that, without the moonlight, we would not see.  But the moonlight shows this path to anyone who comes along, not just good people, or people who ‘deserve’ to be shown the path.

But there are many situations in which we assist people who may lack in virtue.  We might drive someone to a 12-step program even though they may have directly harmed us, in the hope that this may lead to them not engaging in this kind of behavior in the future.  We may assist our children even if we have questions about our children’s character.  We may donate to a charity without knowing if any of the people receiving assistance from the charity are ‘deserving’ of such charity.  These kinds of things happen frequently.

The truth is, the material realm in which we live is inherently imperfect and human beings are imperfect participants in this imperfect world.  I think that is part of what it means when we think of this material world as ‘fallen’.  Whatever capacity we possess to assist others is small, due to being entangled in material concerns.  But The Eternal is not entangled in these material concerns; it is transcendental to the material dimension.  Because of this, The Eternal’s capacity for assistance is limitless and that limitless capacity is its grace.

7 October 2022

Grace

Socrates:  At the moment, if through all this discussion our queries and statements have been correct, virtue is found to be neither natural nor taught, but is imparted to us by a divine dispensation without understanding in those who receive it . . .

Meno: I think you put it excellently, Socrates.

Socrates: Then the result of our reasoning, Meno, is found to be that virtue comes to us by a divine dispensation, when it does come.

(Meno, Plato, translated by W. R. M. Lamb, Loeb Classical Library, 1924, pages 369 and 371)

Socrates:  But now, if we in this whole account both searched rightly and were speaking rightly, virtue would be neither by nature, nor something teachable, but has come by divine dispensation without intelligence in those to whom it might come . . .

Meno:  You have spoken most beautifully, it seems to me, Socrates.

Socrates:  Then from this reasoning, Meno, virtue appears to have come to us by divine dispensation, for those to whom it may come.

(Meno, Plato, translated by George Anastaplo and Laurence Berns, Focus Philosophical Library, Newburyport, MA, 2004, page 45)

I tend to see grace as an essential feature of Platonism.  By that I mean that without grace the mystical return to The One would not be possible.  I see the passage quoted above as supporting this point of view.  There are contemporary Platonists who disagree with this perspective, some do so strongly.  Here are a few observations:

1. We tend to understand grace through the lens of Christianity; this makes sense because the Christian perspective on grace is central to that tradition and because Christian perspectives have permeated Western culture, it is natural that we in the West would defer to a Christian understanding of grace when talking about grace.

2. I think of grace in Christianity as being derived from Platonism; that is to say I think the view of grace existed first in Platonism and then was adopted, with modifications, by early Christianity, in Latin Christianity primarily by Augustine.  This is a complex topic.  As Phillip Carey writes in Inner Grace, “Divine grace is built into the very structure of Platonism, in which all good is a participation in a higher Good . . . “ (page 5). 

3. I think that our understanding of grace can be deepened by engaging non-Monotheistic traditions where grace plays an important role.  I am thinking primarily of Pure Land Buddhism.  In the Pure Land tradition, the emphasis is on how ordinary human beings have to rely on the compassion of celestial beings, Bodhisattvas, to become uplifted and, ultimately, enlightened.  I see this as similar to how the Platonist has to rely on the energy emanating from The One, The Good, and The Beautiful in order to access the mystical ascent. 

4. I understand grace in Platonism as a consequence of understanding the ultimate as The Eternal.  I see The Eternal as having three aspects: 1) the always existing or always present or omnipresent, 2) the everywhere nature of The Eternal, meaning that there is no place that the Eternal is not present, and 3) the everything nature of The Eternal, meaning that all things are derived from, touched by, and participate in The Eternal.  I see The Eternal as The One in the mode of grace.

5.  None of this is to say that people do not have to make effort, that they need to cultivate virtue, that they need to engage with purifications, in order to climb the path to union with The One.  I suspect that some who dislike the idea of grace see grace as undermining the need for individuals to commit themselves to spiritual practice.  But I think both are true.  It is like moonlight shining on a mountain path that you could not see but for the moonlight, but you still need to take the steps on this difficult path.

 

 

3 October 2022

The Consolation of Boethius

Decades ago, I had to go to the hospital for surgery.  As I was gathering things, I looked at my shelves for a book or two to take with me.  At the time I didn’t self-identify as a Platonist; instead, I thought of myself as a Buddhist.  I had studied and practiced Buddhism for over 30 years, I had been a former Buddhist monastic, and I had taught classes in Buddhist thought at Junior Colleges and a few other locations.  I had a lot of Buddhist books, but for some reason none of them seemed to speak to me at this time, meaning none of them felt like they would assist me in my precarious situation.

Tucked away on a shelf, almost hidden, was a copy of The Consolation of Philosophy by Boethius.  I had read it many years before in college and when I saw it, I took it off the shelf and put it in my small bag of things to take with me.  It turned out to be perfect; I found it uplifting, insightful, and beautifully crafted.  Since then, I have reread it every two or three years, and it has continued to have the same uplifting effect.

Over the years I have run into many people who have had a similar experience with Consolation.  The book is an antidote to the difficulties of life, putting them in perspective, and deepening our understanding of how these difficulties happen, and how wisdom opens a door that leads us beyond these difficulties.

In the English-speaking world Consolation has had a stellar career; it was translated into Anglo-Saxon by King Alfred, into Middle English by Chaucer, and into Early Modern English by Queen Elizabeth I.  In the medieval period the verse sections of Consolation were turned into songs; some of these songs have recently been reconstructed.  Today there are many translations of Consolation, indicating that it still has a wide appeal.

For those unfamiliar with Consolation, Boethius lived in the late 5^th, early 6^th, centuries.  He was classically educated and was intent on translating Greek philosophy into Latin.  Boethius entered into the political life of that time, rising to a very high position.  His two sons also attained high position.  Suddenly, Boethius was accused of treason by factions at court and he was arrested and thrown in prison.  A year later he was executed.  He wrote The Consolation of Philosophy while in prison.

In the opening of the Consolation Boethius laments his fate.  As Boethius falls into despair, the Goddess Philosophy appears to him in his prison room.  She takes it upon herself to remind Boethius of the teachings of philosophy, the nature of the world, and the wisdom that leads to the transcendence of the world and its sorrows.  The book is a dialogue between Boethius and Philosophy in both prose and verse.  It is thoroughly Platonic in its views, in its mode of discussion, and in its understanding that philosophy is salvific.  There are discussions about fate, wisdom, transcendence, the task of philosophy, and what it means to live a life of wisdom.  And there is a wonderful section on the nature of love:

What binds all things to order,

Governing earth and sea and sky,

Is love.

If love’s rein slackened

All things now held by mutual love

At once would fall to warring with each other

Striving to wreck that engine of the world

Which now they drive

In mutual trust with motion beautiful.

And love joins peoples too

By a sacred bond,

And ties the knot of holy matrimony

That binds chaste lovers,

Joins too with its law

All faithful comrades.

O happy race of men,

If the love that rules the stars

May also rule your hearts!

(Boethius, The Consolation of Philosophy, translated by S. J. Tester, Loeb Classical Library, 1973, page 227)

Looking back on my decision to take the Consolation with me to the hospital, I see it as a personal step, or decision, to move away from Buddhism and to enter into the house, or academy, that Platonism built.  I didn’t register it that way at the time as the decision to take Consolation with me was almost impulsive.  But what I learned from that experience is that philosophy is, as I said above, salvific, that philosophy offers deep consolation for the ups and downs of life, and leads those who will listen to its teachings to the realm that lies beyond all sorrow.

 

 

2 October 2022

Maximus of Tyre on Contemplation

“But the Divine itself cannot be seen by the eye or spoken of by the tongue or touched by the flesh or heard by the ear; it is only the noblest and purest and most intelligent and subtlest and most venerable aspect of the soul that can see it in virtue of their similarity, and hear it in virtue of their kinship, grasping it all at once in a single act of comprehension.  So, just as if someone desires to see the sun, he does not seek to grasp it with his sense of hearing; and if someone is passionate for vocal harmonies, he does not pursue them with his eyes – it is sight that is passionate for colours and hearing for sounds – just so what intellect ‘sees’ and ‘hears’ is the Intelligible . . .

How then does the intellect see, and how does it hear?  By bringing to bear an upright, vigorous soul, by fixing its gaze firmly on that pure light and not falling prey to vertigo, nor sinking back towards the earth, but blocking off its ears, and turning ears and eyes in upon itself; by forgetting the groans and lamentations and pleasures and fancies and honours and dishonours below and entrusting its guidance to true Reason and vigorous Love – Reason to instruct it on the correct path, Love to watch over it and to ease the labours of the journey with its persuasive charm. As the soul advances thither and distances itself from things below, the clear radiance of what lies ahead of it, stage by stage, serves as a prelude to God’s true nature.  As it advances, it hears of God’s nature; as it ascends, it sees it.  The end of the journey is not the heavens nor the heavenly bodies.  For though these are indeed things of wondrous beauty, in that they are his true and legitimate offspring, in harmony with supreme Beauty, yet must we go beyond even these and emerge beyond the heavens, into the region of true Reality and the peace which reigns there , , ,”

(Maximus of Tyre, The Philosophical Orations, Oration 11, translated by M. B. Trapp, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1997, pages 103 and 104)

Maximus was a Platonist philosopher of the second century; his exact dates are unknown as are details about his life.  His essays, which seem to have been publicly given speeches, hence ‘Orations’, were collected at an early date and have circulated ever since.  Oration 11 has had a profound influence on the understanding of contemplation in various Christian traditions such as Catholicism and the Quaker tradition.

When I read this Oration, I am struck by the centrality of contemplation in the Platonic tradition; it is the beating heart of philosophy as understood in Platonism.  Contemplation is the means whereby the mystical ascent to that which lies beyond sense experience, and is the source of all sensory experience, is attained.

 

 

 1 October 2022

The Silence of Xenocrates 

“He [Xenocrates} was the least puffed up of men; he would often, in the course of a day, withdraw into himself, and it is said that he used to assign an entire hour to silence.”

(Lives of the Eminent Philosophers, Diogenes Laertius, translated by Pamela Mensch, edited by James Miller, Oxford University Press, 2018, page 184)

There are frequent references to contemplation in Platonism.  By contemplation I mean practices that cultivate interior states of mind, or an interior focus, a turning away from sensory stimulation in order to awaken to the interior light and wisdom that flows from The Good, The Beautiful, The One, and The Eternal.

The contemporary philosopher Mark Anderson refers to this passage about Xenocrates in Anderson’s book Pure:

“According to reports recorded by Diogenes Laertius, Xenocrates ‘practiced an internal care and devoted an hour every day to silence’ . . .  “

(Pure, Mark Anderson, Sophia Perennis, San Rafael, CA, 2009, page 102)

Anderson connects this practice of interior silence to Xenocrates’s commitment to vegetarianism, viewing both practices as forms of purification.  From this perspective, the practice of vegetarianism and the practice of interior silence are seen as having equal importance in the Platonic tradition.

For those of us wanting to practice Platonism today this understanding offers us a way of living a life that is conducive to the Return to the One that is at the heart of Platonism.  The two practices of vegetarianism and interior silence balance each other and mutually re-enforce each other.  Vegetarianism is a transformation of one’s relationship to the mundane world.  Interior silence is a transformation of one’s relationship with the soul. 

By adopting these two practices we open the gate to the Platonic Way of Life.