4 February 2024
Plotinus and his Nuanced Unpacking of the Nature of Evil
“Then are the evils in the All necessary, because they follow on the prior realities? Rather because if they did not exist the All would be imperfect. Most of them, even all of them, contribute something useful to the Whole – poisonous snakes do, for instance – though generally the reason why remains obscure. Even moral evil itself has many advantages and is productive of much excellence, for example, all the beauty of art, and rouses us to serious thought about our way of living, not allowing us to slumber complacently. If this is correct, it must be that the Soul of the All contemplates the best, always aspiring to the intelligible nature and to God, and that when it is full, filled right up to the brim, its trace, its last and lowest expression, is this productive principle that we are discussing. This, then, is the ultimate maker; over it is the part of soul which is primarily filled from Intellect: over all is Intellect the Craftsman, who gives to the soul which comes next those gifts whose traces are in the third. This visible universe, then, is properly called an image always in process of being made; its first and second principles are at rest, the third at rest too, but also in motion, incidentally and in matter. As long as Intellect and Soul exist, the forming principles will flow into this lower form of soul, just as, as long as the sun exists, all its rays will shine from it.”
(Plotinus, Ennead II.3.18, On Whether the Stars are Causes, translated by A. H. Armstrong, Plotinus: Ennead II, Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1966, page 101, ISBN: 9780674994867)
“Are the evils in the Universe necessary because it is of later origin than the Higher Sphere?
“Perhaps rather because without evil the All would be incomplete. For most or even all forms of evil serve the Universe – much as the poisonous snake has its use – though in most cases their function is unknown. Vice itself has many useful sides: it brings about much that is beautiful, in artistic creations for example, and its stirs us to thoughtful living, not allowing us to drowse in security.
“If all this is so, then (the secret of creation is that) the Soul of the All abides in contemplation of the Highest and Best, ceaselessly striving towards the Intelligible Kind and towards God: but, thus absorbing and filled full, it overflows, so to speak – and the image it gives forth, its last utterance towards the lower, will be the creative puissance.
“This, then, is the ultimate Maker, secondary to that aspect of the Soul which is primarily saturated from the Divine Intelligence. But the Creator above all is the Intellectual-Principle, as giver, to the Soul that follows it, of those gifts whose traces exist in the Third Kind.
Rightly, therefore, is this Cosmos described as an image continuously being imaged, the First and the Second Principles immobile, the Third too, immobile essentially, but, accidentally and in Matter, having motion.
“For as long as divine Mind and Soul exist, the divine Thought-Forms (Reason-Principes) will pour forth into that phase of the Soul: as long as there is a sun, all that streams from it will be some form of Light.”
(Plotinus, Ennead II.3.18, translated by Stephen MacKenna, Larson Publications, Burdett, New York, 1992, pages 117 & 118, ISBN: 9780943914558)
1. This is the last section, or paragraph (depending on the translator), of this Ennead. The topic of the Ennead is astrology; specifically whether or not the causal mechanism that astrologers at that time gave for how astrology works makes sense. Plotinus offers a nuanced analysis; Plotinus does not dismiss astrology entirely but calls into question some of its claims. As I understand it, Plotinus argues that astrology works, when it does work, in the same way that other types of augury work, such as observing the flight of birds, and so forth. In paragraph 14 Plotinus writes, “. . . all things without exception are connected with each other; so everything without exception is indicated (Ibid, Armstrong, page 89).” In other words, if you know how to read the flight of birds you can read such flight for what is ‘indicated’ in response to a question. And you can read the stars for what is indicated.
2. The question of negativities and evil appear in this context in a natural way, because astrology claims to be able to predict if someone will have tendencies to evil, or be victimized by evil, or if the opposite will be the case. Plotinus is skeptical of assertions like this. Interestingly, his skepticism seems to be rooted in the observation that we do not always know, ultimately, if something that happens to us, or something that we do, is negative or positive. (This relates back to the Taoist story I mentioned in my previous post on evil (posted 29 January 2024, the third comment.)) I think this quote expands what Plotinus has to say about evil beyond what is said in the Theaetetus.
3. “Then are the evils in the All necessary, because they follow on the prior realities? Rather because if they did not exist the All would be imperfect.”
MacKenna translates using the word ‘incomplete’ rather than ‘imperfect.’ The implication here is that the existence of evil in the material world is an expression of the perfection of the All (or as MacKenna translates, the Universe.) This is difficult to grasp or accept. I think the mind resists such a view. It resists such a view because we instinctively want to rid the cosmos of evil. But Plato says in Theaetetus that his is not possible and Plotinus is here suggesting that it is not possible because evil is a necessary expression of perfection, but that we misunderstand this. I believe this view is based on a deep acceptance of the cosmos and, I suspect, it is also rooted in Plotinus’s deep awareness of beauty.
I suspect that this is one of these teachings that is understood through intuition and contemplation, but that remains hidden from rational, meaning logical, analysis.
4. “Most of them [evils], even all of them, contribute something useful to the Whole – poisonous snakes do, for instance, though generally the reason why remains obscure.”
I like the way Plotinus is a bit hesitant in his assertion; first he says ‘most of them,’ which is then followed by ‘even all of them.’ This indicates to me that he is ‘thinking out loud,’ or speculating about this problem, using his considerable intellect to unpack the meanings and implications of the presence of evil in our world.
It’s interesting to me that the example of evil Plotinus offers is poisonous snakes. Personally, I don’t think of poisonous snakes as evil. In the same way I don’t think of natural disasters as evil. But it seems to be the case that, at least at one level, Plotinus is equating destructive or disintegrative forces, even if they are completely natural, as evil. It’s not clear to me if Plotinus would distinguish between a murderer and a poisonous snake if the poisonous was fatal. From one perspective I can see equating the two because it places both humans and snakes on an equal footing; meaning they are both creatures that ‘follow on prior realities.’ But I think there is a tendency to regard a human murderer as having greater ethical agency, having free will, and thinking that snakes do not have ethical agency or free will, or at least not to the degree that humans do. This is leading to murky waters and I have to cut it short; but I just wanted to point to some of the complexities this kind of analysis gives rise to. And, as we see, Plotinus touches on some of these in the next sentence.
5. “Even moral evil itself has many advantages and is productive of much excellence, for example, all the beauty of art, and rouses us to serious thought about our way of living, not allowing us to slumber complacently.”
Plotinus is distinguishing ‘moral evil,’ what MacKenna translates as ‘vice,’ from the evil of a poisonous snake. Moral evil is, I think, something that belongs to humans and gods, but likely is not a part of the realm of other living things.
In a footnote to this sentence Armstrong writes, “Is Plotinus thinking here, perhaps, of tragic poetry? If so, the argument shows a startling reversal of Plato’s standpoint. Plato in Republic II refused to allow poets to portray moral evil; Plotinus here seems to be justifying the existence of moral evil in the universe because it produces art.” Plotinus thought of himself as a loyal, and dedicated, interpreter of Plato; because of this I have to think a bit about Armstrong’s remarks. The first thing I can think of is that Plato wanted to shield children from depictions of moral evil; I don’t think it was a general prohibition, which Armstrong implies. If I’m correct, shielding children from tales of betrayal and murder is likely a good thing, as such tales would be difficult for children to interpret because they lack the life experience that would place such tales in context.
6. One of the things that the presence of evil in the cosmos teaches us that this realm in which we live is deeply troubled. It is for this reason that Plotinus at this point shifts the discussion to the divine ascent, detailing the levels of the cosmos. Plotinus says there are ‘traces’ of the divine in the ‘third’; by the ‘third’ Plotinus means the material domain. He is saying that even in the material domain we can perceive traces of the divine which is the source of the material domain.
7. “This visible [sensory] universe, then, is properly called an image always in process of being made; its first and second principles are at rest, the third at rest too, but also in motion, incidentally and in matter.”
The material world is an image of the noetic, and beyond the noetic, the transcendental. Both of these are ‘at rest,’ meaning in perfect stillness. Surprising, Plotinus adds that the ‘third,’ meaning the material realm, is ‘at rest too’ but it is ‘also in motion.’
In Platonism there is a distinction between the eternal and the everlasting. The eternal is timeless; it is essentially, not ‘incidentally’ at rest. The everlasting endures throughout all time but is a part of time; this is why our cosmos is cyclic. This cyclic nature of our cosmos is ever lasting but ‘also in motion.’ The everlasting is the way that matter imitates the eternal.
8. “As long as Intellect and Soul exist, the forming principles will flow into this lower form of soul, just as, as long as the sun exists, all its rays will shine from it.”
This is a beautiful conclusion to this Ennead. ‘Intellect’ refers to Noetic Mind. ‘Soul,’ with a capital ‘S’ refers to the world soul which transcends our individual souls that are more differentiated than the world soul. Intellect overflows into the World Soul, and the World Soul overflows into out individual souls; in each case this overflowing happens like the rays of the light of the sun overflowing into space and generating all life on earth.
“EVILS ARE NECESSARY TO THE PERFECTION OF THE UNIVERSE
“Must the evils in the universe be considered as necessary, because they are the consequences of the superior principles? Yes, for without them the universe would be imperfect. The greater number of evils, if not all of them, are useful to the universe; such as the venomous animals; though they often ignore their real utility. Even wickedness is useful in certain respects, and can produce many beautiful things; for example, it leads to fine inventions, it forces men to prudence, and does not let them fall asleep in an indolent security.
“PICTURE OF THE STRUCTURE OF THE UNIVERSE
“Under these circumstances, it is plain that the universal Soul ever contemplates the better principles, because it is turned towards the intelligible world, and towards the divinity. As she fills herself with God, and is filled with God, she, as it were overflows over her image, namely the power which holds the last rank (the natural generative power), and which, consequently, is the last creative power. Above this creative power is the power of the Soul which immediately receives the forms from the Intelligence. Above all is the Intelligence, the Demiurge, who gives the forms to the universal Soul, and the latter impresses its traces on the third-rank power (the natural generative power). This world, therefore, is veritably a picture which perpetually pictures itself. The two first principles are immovable; the third is also immovable (in essence); but it is engaged in matter, and becomes immovable (only) by accident. As long as the Intelligence and the Soul subsist, the ‘reasons’ flow down into this image of the Soul (the natural generative power); likewise, so long as the sun subsists, all light emanates therefrom.”
(Plotinus, Complete Works, translated by Kenneth Sylvan Guthrie, First Edition 1918, Reprinted with New Formatting 2017, Kshetra Books, No Location Given, pages 613 & 614, ISBN: 9781974518968)
1. I decided to add the Guthrie translation of this part of the Ennead on whether or not the stars are causes. Guthrie is, for the most part, left out when there are discussions about translations. My understanding is that Guthrie lacked a competent Greek text from which to work; at least that is what I read here and there.
2. Guthrie added section titles; those aren’t part of the original text. Guthrie’s section titles are a bit like an outline of the Enneads.
3. Guthrie uses the phrase “venomous animals” rather than “poisonous snakes.” According to a friend, who reads Classical Greek, the word ‘snakes’ is not in the Greek; perhaps venomous animals is a more literal translation.
4. On the other hand, Guthrie uses the term “Demiurge” where Armstrong uses “the Soul of All”; I did not find the word “Demiurge” in the Greek when I went over it quickly (I can, very slowly, read a tiny bit of Greek now, but I often miss things.) The Demiurge, from the Timaeus features prominently in a number of Platonic Sages’ writings; but in Plotinus there is not a lot said about the Demiurge; it’s not entirely absent but the Demiurge does not have the prominence that others give it. For a discussion about this I recommend Mystical Monotheism by John Peter Kenney who discusses the way Plotinus ‘demotes’ the Demiurge in the Enneads, beginning on page 97.
5. I like comparing translations. All of the translators of the complete Enneads were dedicated scholars with a deep admiration for Plotinus. They were sincere in their admiration for Plotinus. And I’m very grateful for the time and energy they put into bringing the wisdom of Plotinus into the English language.
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